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AgBioForum Volume 10 Number 3
Special issue
"Biofortified Food Crops: Progress and Prospects in Developing Countries"
Guest edited by Laurian Unnevehr (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign), Carl Pray (Rutgers University), Robert Paarlberg (Wellesley College), and Calestous Juma (Harvard University)

Table of contents

1. Addressing Micronutrient Deficiencies: Alternative Interventions and Technologies
Laurian Unnevehr, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Carl Pray, Rutgers University Robert Paarlberg, Wellesley College

Market failure for nutritional attributes of foods leads to underinvestment in crop breeding to enhance nutritional content of foods. As awareness of the importance of micronutrient deficiencies in the diets of poor people has grown, public investments in research to create biofortified staple crops have increased. The potential for this new approach is assessed in two ways. First, an examination of lessons from established interventions to address micronutrient deficiencies shows where and how biofortification can complement existing interventions and provides guidance regarding potential hurdles to successful implementation. Second, the potential for different crop-breeding technologies to biofortify crops is examined, and the advances that can only be achieved through application of modern biotechnology are identified.

2. Patterns of Political Response to Biofortified Varieties of Crops Produced with Different Breeding Techniques and Agronomic Traits
Carl Pray, Rutgers University
Robert Paarlberg, Wellesley College
Laurian Unnevehr, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

This article first examines the political response to two crops that were nutritionally enhanced through conventional breeding--Quality Protein Maize (QPM) and orange-fleshed sweet potatoes. In the next section, the political response to food crops--maize, potato, and papaya--which have improved agronomic traits through genetic engineering is described. Finally, we mention briefly the initial political responses to biofortified GMO rice, potatoes, cassava, and sorghum. To gain political support as well as extensive adoption by farmers, biofortification needs to be combined with attractive agronomic traits. These case studies also show that only GMOs have elicited a strong negative political response and that the consumer trait, biofortification, is not likely to make GMOs more appealing to activists and politicians. However, political opposition to GMOs can be outweighed by well-organized, politically powerful interest groups.

3. Political Actors on the Landscape
Robert Paarlberg, Wellesley College
Carl Pray, Rutgers University

The introduction of novel foods and crops into the developing world triggers different reactions from different political actors. Quite often, the patterns of response in developing countries run parallel to policy debates in rich countries, reflecting the close relationships that still can be found between government ministries, companies, and NGOs in rich countries and their subordinate partners in the developing world. In general, the strongest supporters of novel foods and crops will be scientists, agricultural ministries, and the private companies trying to sell the new technology. The strongest skeptics are likely to be NGOs claiming to speak for the poor, as well as environmental ministries. If the novel foods and crops are GMO varieties, the patterns of local support will be much weaker, and the opposition is likely to be broader and significantly stronger.

4. Crop Case Study: GMO Golden Rice in Asia with Enhanced Vitamin A Benefits for Consumers
David Dawe, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Laurian Unnevehr, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champign

Golden Rice is genetically modified to provide beta-carotene in the rice grain and it could potentially address widespread Vitamin A deficiency in poor countries where rice is a staple. Political opponents have viewed Golden Rice as representing the interests of multi-nationals and as inherently unsafe for consumption. Progress has been made towards adapting this crop to tropical-rice growing environments, but it has not yet been introduced into farmer's fields. Efficacy and safety have not yet been fully tested. Substantial work remains to target and deliver this intervention to Vitamin A-deficient populations, and to overcome remaining resistance to this technology. The political response to the on-going development of Golden Rice is reviewed to draw lessons for biofortification efforts that employ modern biotechnology. Within Asian countries, successful development and delivery will require policy dialogue among agriculturalists, health specialists, and advocates for the!
poor.

5. Biofortification for China: Political Responses to Food Fortification and GM Technology, Interest Groups, and Possible Strategies
Carl Pray, Rutgers University
Jikun Huang, Chinese Academy of Sciences

Despite making enormous strides in reducing poverty, hunger, and malnutrition, China still has large numbers of people who do not consume sufficient micronutrients such as iron, zinc and Vitamin A. To meet this need, government agencies in China are supporting programs in industrial fortification and vitamin supplements. In recent years the government has also supported research on biofortification of major grain crops using both conventional plant breeding and transgenic techniques. The article assesses the potential political barriers to the acceptance of biofortified crops and concludes that biofortification using non-transgenic techniques would probably not face much opposition, while biofortification with transgenic techniques might have a more difficult time. The article then assesses which groups in China are likely to support or oppose biofortification and then proposes some strategies that the government and international agencies might use if they decide to support!
biofortification.

6. Biofortified Crops and Biotechnology: A Political Economy Landscape for India
Bharat Ramaswami, Indian Statistical Institute

Micronutrient deficiencies are responsible for major health problems among the poor in India. Biofortification promises to be a cost-effective approach in enhancing the intake of micronutrients. However, it requires government support in terms of resources and regulatory climate. This paper assesses the political receptivity to biofortification especially when it may involve genetic engineering. The paper draws on an understanding of political economy of pro-poor policies as well as the political responses to Bt cotton--the only GM crop that has received regulatory approval. The paper argues that mainstream political parties are unlikely to take strong positions on biofortified crops-whether in favor or in opposition--unless it affords an opportunity to politically mobilize farmers. If it involves genetic modification, biofortified crops will certainly be opposed by NGOs opposed to biotechnology. The extent of support from the scientific community will depend on whether the !
health and nutrition community is involved.

7. Socio-Economic and Political Concerns for GM Foods and Biotechnology Adoption in the Philippines
Liborio S. Cabanilla, University of the Philippines at Los Banos

The Philippines established the first National Institute of Biotechnology and Applied Microbiology in 1980. However, it was only in 2002 when Bt corn was first commercially introduced. Strong opposition by key sectors including the influential Roman Catholic Church contributed to this delay and will probably continue to affect the introduction of other GM crops in the future.

With favorable adoption rates of Bt corn, opposition dissipated and local scientific initiatives have expanded to other crops (e.g., GM papaya, eggplant). The Philippine Rice Research Institute in collaboration with IRRI is currently engaged in the adaptation of Golden Rice (biofortified for Vitamin A) but it is not clear how the polity will react to this new technology when it is ready for adoption. It is a major food staple in contrast to Bt corn. The government's agenda also puts a high premium on food self-sufficiency, especially rice.

8. Assessing the Prospects for the Adoption of Biofortified Crops in South Africa
Rosemary Wolson, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

South Africa was an early adopter of GM crops and, more recently, introduced a national food-fortification program. This article discusses the country's experiences in developing an appropriate regulatory framework and the responses of key stakeholders. In addition, an assessment is presented of the prospects for the adoption of biofortified crops in South Africa.

9. Biofortified Foods and Crops in West Africa: Mali and Burkina Faso
Regina Birner, International Food Policy Research Institute Sanibe Abel Kone, National Programme for Citizenship Education (PNEC) Nicolas Linacre, Independent Consultant Danielle Resnick, Cornell University

Micronutrient deficiencies, especially deficiencies of Vitamin A, iron, and zinc, are widespread in Burkina Faso and Mali and contribute to high mortality rates. Biofortification of the major food staple crops consumed in these countries has considerable potential to increase the micronutrient status of vulnerable populations if the challenges of seed distribution can be overcome. This article examines the political landscape for the introduction of biofortified crops, including those developed through genetic engineering. Based on the experience with current strategies of food fortification, it is shown that the political environment for biofortified crops developed through conventional breeding is highly favorable. Analyzing the current state of biosafety legislation and the political debates regarding genetically modified (GM) crops in the region, where the current focus is on Bt cotton, this study concludes that the political environment for introducing GM biofortified f!
ood crops is at present not conducive. Strategies that prioritize the introduction of GM crops may jeopardize the favorable environment to welcome non-GM biofortified crops.

10. Patterns of Political Support and Pathways to Final Impact
Calestous Juma, Harvard University
Robert Paarlberg, Wellesley College
Carl Pray, Rutgers University
Laurian Unnevehr, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

A hypothetical scheme is offered for predicting which biofortified food technologies will enjoy greatest political support or opposition and from which actors on the political landscape. Beyond political support, benefits to nutrition from biofortified crops will also require acceptance by both farmers and consumers, as well as adequate nutrient uptake. Keys are reviewed to strengthening these three non-political links in the chain of final success. A four-pronged strategy for moving forward is then offered.

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