.

Dear Forum Members,

We wish to announce that Conference 16 of the FAO Biotechnology Forum begins on Monday 8 June and runs for four weeks, finishing on Sunday 5 July 2009. The title of the conference is "Learning from the past: Successes and failures with agricultural biotechnologies in developing countries over the last 20 years".

The aim of the e-mail conference is to bring together and discuss relevant, often previously un-documented, past experiences of applying biotechnologies at the field level (i.e. used by farmers for commercial production) in
developing countries, assess the success or failure (partial or complete) of their application, and determine and evaluate the key factors that were responsible for their relative success or failure.

The e-mail conference is being organised to complement a series of five technical sector-specific documents (on biotechnology applications in crops, forestry, livestock, fisheries and aquaculture and, finally, food processing
and food safety) that FAO is preparing as part of the build up to the international technical conference on Agricultural Biotechnologies in Developing Countries (ABDC-09). ABDC-09 will take place in Guadalajara, Mexico on 2-5 November 2009 and is being co-organized by FAO and the Government of Mexico (http://www.fao.org/biotech/abdc/conference-home/en/).

This e-mail conference, as usual, is open to everyone, is free and will be moderated. The purpose of this message is to provide you with the Background Document for the conference and to invite you to join. The Background Document is now also available on the web - at http://www.fao.org/biotech/C16doc.htm (in HTML) and http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/abdc/documents/forumbd.pdf (PDF).

The Background Document aims to provide information about the conference theme that participants will find useful for the debate. After the Introduction, Section 2 of the document provides a overview of the main kinds
of agricultural biotechnologies that have been used in developing countries over the past 20 years and that should be covered in the e-mail conference (including use of molecular markers, genetic modification, chromosome number manipulation, biotechnology-based diagnostics, development of vaccines using biotechnologies, reproductive biotechnologies in livestock and aquaculture, cryopreservation, tissue culture-based techniques, mutagenesis, fermentation, biofertilisers and biopesticides). A short description of the different biotechnologies is provided, indicating also what they are used for, the food and agricultural sectors involved and giving some examples of their applications in specific developing countries. Section 3 presents some
specific guidance about this e-mail conference, including a description of the issues participants should address as well as potential factors to consider when assessing whether specific applications of a biotechnology have been a partial or complete success (or failure). In the final section, references to articles mentioned in the document, abbreviations and acknowledgements are provided.

As for all previous conferences hosted by the FAO Biotechnology Forum, a document will be prepared after the e-mail conference is finished to provide a summary of the main issues that were discussed, based on the messages posted by the participants.

Please pass this information on to other colleagues who might be interested in joining the conference. As the Background Document sets the scene for the conference and highlights the elements to be discussed, it should be read carefully by members wishing to participate in the conference.


I. TO SUBSCRIBE TO CONFERENCE 16:

To subscribe, please send an e-mail message to mailserv@mailserv.fao.org
leaving the subject blank and entering the one-line text message as follows:
subscribe biotech-room4

No other text should be added to the message (e.g. mail signature).

Note, you must first be a member of the Forum to subscribe to the conference. If someone wishes to both join the Forum and subscribe to the conference, they should send an e-mail to mailserv@mailserv.fao.org leaving the subject blank and entering the following text on two separate lines:
subscribe BIOTECH-L
subscribe biotech-room4

II. TO UNSUBSCRIBE FROM CONFERENCE 16:

You may leave the conference whenever you wish. This can be done by sending an e-mail message to mailserv@mailserv.fao.org leaving the subject blank and entering the one-line text message as follows:
unsubscribe biotech-room4

No other text should be added to the message (e.g. mail signature). 

III. TO SEND A MESSAGE TO CONFERENCE 16:

This conference is quite short, lasting just four weeks. We encourage you therefore to participate actively right from the beginning of the conference. You can send messages now. Messages will be posted from Monday 8 June onwards while the last day for receiving messages for posting will be Sunday 5 July 2009. All the e-mail messages posted during the conference will be placed on the Forum website at http://www.fao.org/biotech/logs/c16logs.htm

To contribute to the conference, send your message to biotech-room4@mailserv.fao.org

Before doing this, remember to carefully read the Rules of the Forum as well as the Guidelines for Participation in e-mail Conferences, which you got by e-mail in the Welcome Text when you first joined the Forum (also available on the Forum website http://www.fao.org/biotech/forum.asp). Note: participants are assumed to be speaking on their own behalf and not on behalf of their employers, unless they state otherwise.

IV. ARCHIVES:

All messages posted during the conference will be stored and can be retrieved. The messages are stored in monthly files. To retrieve them you send an e-mail message and the stored messages are sent to you by return as an e-mail message.

To get all the messages posted in the conference during June 2009, send an e-mail message to mailserv@mailserv.fao.org leaving the subject blank and enter the one-line text message as follows:
send listlog/biotech-room4.jun2009

To get all messages posted during July 2009, send an e-mail message to mailserv@mailserv.fao.org leaving the subject blank and enter the one-line text message as follows:
send listlog/biotech-room4.jul2009

Note: lower case letters as shown here, and not upper case letters, must be used. No other text should be added to the message (e.g., mail signature).

V. CONTACTING US:

This e-mail conference will be moderated, so that all messages will be read before they are posted to ensure that they follow the Guidelines for Participation in e-mail Conferences and the Rules of the Forum (e.g. that
they are not offensive), are not too long (600 words should be the maximum length) and are directly relevant to the topic of the conference. If you have questions or comments about this e-mail conference you may contact the conference moderator, John Ruane, at biotech-mod4@fao.org.

Note, for security reasons no e-mail messages are ever sent out to this Forum or its e-mail conferences with attachments. If you happen to receive a message with an e-mail attachment, just delete it without opening the
attachment.

If you wish to leave this Forum, send an e-mail to mailserv@mailserv.fao.org leaving the subject blank and entering the following text:
unsubscribe BIOTECH-L

Best regards

John Ruane, PhD
FAO Biotechnology Forum Administrator
E-mail address: Biotech-Admin@fao.org
FAO website http://www.fao.org
Forum website http://www.fao.org/biotech/forum.asp
FAO Biotechnology website http://www.fao.org/biotech/index.asp

**********************************************

VI. BACKGROUND DOCUMENT TO CONFERENCE 16:

Learning from the past: Successes and failures with agricultural biotechnologies in developing countries over the last 20 years

CONTENTS

1. Introduction
2. Agricultural Biotechnologies in Developing Countries
2.1 Molecular markers
2.2 Genetic modification
2.3 Chromosome number manipulation
2.4 Biotechnology-based diagnostics
2.5 Development of vaccines using biotechnologies
2.6 Reproductive biotechnologies
  2.6.1 Artificial insemination
  2.6.2 Embryo transfer
  2.6.3 Hormonal treatment in aquaculture
  2.6.4 Sperm/embryo sexing
2.7 Cryopreservation
2.8 Tissue culture-based techniques
  2.8.1 Micropropagation
  2.8.2 In vitro slow growth storage
  2.8.3 In vitro embryo rescue
2.9 Mutagenesis
2.10 Fermentation
2.11 Biofertilisers
2.12 Biopesticides
3. Specific Points About This E-mail Conference
3.1 Issues to be addressed in the e-mail conference
3.2 Defining success and failure
3.3 Covering GM versus non-GM biotechnologies
3.4 Submitting a message
4. References, Abbreviations and Acknowledgements

1. Introduction

The FAO international technical conference on "Agricultural biotechnologies
in developing countries: Options and opportunities in crops, forestry,
livestock, fisheries and agro-industry to face the challenges of food
insecurity and climate change" (ABDC-09) will take place in Guadalajara,
Mexico on 2-5 November 2009. ABDC-09 is co-organized by FAO and the
Government of Mexico (http://www.fao.org/biotech/abdc/conference-home/en/).

Impetus for the conference comes from the need for concrete steps to be taken
to move beyond the "business-as-usual" approach and to respond to the growing
food insecurity in developing countries, particularly in light of climate
change that will worsen the living conditions of farmers, fishers and
forest-dependent people who are already vulnerable and food insecure. The
recent increases in food prices have had dramatic consequences globally. In
October 2008, FAO released its major report on "The State of Food Insecurity
in the World" indicating that in 2007, mainly because of rising food prices,
the number of hungry people in the world increased by 75 million (FAO,
2008a). Although international prices have now declined somewhat, the
problems of food insecurity and hunger remain and the challenges they pose
are particularly difficult for the rural poor, who make up an estimated 75
percent of the world's 963 million hungry people.

ABDC-09 aims to be a stock-taking exercise across the different food and
agricultural sectors, describing the current status and analysing previous
successes/failures in order to learn from the past and make recommendations
for the future. The ability to look back and learn from the past is possible
because a large number of biotechnology tools are available and some of them
have already been used for many years in a wide range of developing
countries. For example, a survey carried out by FAO nearly 20 years ago on
the use of artificial insemination indicated that over 16 million cattle were
inseminated in developing countries in 1990/1991 (Chupin, 1992). One of the
expected outputs from ABDC-09 is therefore an analysis of the reasons for the
success and failure of application of different biotechnologies in developing
countries in the past
(http://www.fao.org/biotech/abdc/about/confoutputs/en/).

As part of the build up to ABDC-09, FAO is preparing a series of five
technical sector-specific documents, on biotechnology applications in crops,
forestry, livestock, fisheries and aquaculture and, finally, food processing
and food safety (FAO, 2009a-e). Each one aims to document the current status
of application of biotechnologies in developing countries in its sector;
provide an analysis of the reasons for successes/failures of application of
biotechnologies in developing countries; present some relevant case studies;
and make recommendations for the future
(http://www.fao.org/biotech/abdc/backdocs/en/). To complement these
documents, the FAO Biotechnology Forum is hosting this cross-sectoral e-mail
conference on "Learning from the past: Successes and failures with
agricultural biotechnologies in developing countries over the last 20 years"
to bring together and discuss relevant, often un-documented, past experiences
of applying biotechnologies in developing countries, ascertain the success or
failure (partial or full) of these experiences, and determine and evaluate
the key factors that were responsible for their success or failure.

In this e-mail conference, as well as ABDC-09, the term agricultural
biotechnology encompasses a variety of technologies used in food and
agriculture, for a range of different purposes such as the genetic
improvement of plant varieties and animal populations to increase their
yields or efficiency; genetic characterization and conservation of genetic
resources; plant or animal disease diagnosis; vaccine development; and
improvement of feeds. Some of these technologies may be applied to all the
food and agricultural sectors, such as the use of molecular markers or
genetic modification, while others are more sector-specific, such as tissue
culture (in crops and forest trees), embryo transfer (livestock) or
sex-reversal (fish). Note, the term agriculture includes the production of
crops, livestock, fish and forestry products, so the term 'agricultural
biotechnologies' encompasses their use in any of these sectors.

This Background Document aims to provide information that participants will
find useful for the e-mail conference. In Section 2 an overview is provided
of the different agricultural biotechnologies to be considered. Section 3
presents some specific guidance about this e-mail conference. Section 4
provides references of articles mentioned in the document, abbreviations and
acknowledgements.

2. Agricultural Biotechnologies in Developing Countries

Here we provide a brief overview of the main kinds of agricultural
biotechnologies that have been used in developing countries over the past 20
years and that should be covered in the e-mail conference. They are described
separately, although in practice more than one may be used together in
certain situations (e.g. in wide crossing programs, see Section 2.8.3). Note,
new biotechnologies that are still at the research level, be it in the
laboratory or at the field trial stage, but which have not yet been applied
(i.e. used for commercial production by farmers) in developing countries are
not included.

A short description of the different biotechnologies is provided below,
indicating also what they are used for, the food and agricultural sectors
involved and giving some examples of their applications in specific
developing countries. Regarding the examples, their inclusion in the document
does not imply that these applications have been a partial or complete
success (or, conversely, that they have been any kind of a failure). Indeed,
these are the kind of issues to be addressed by participants during this
e-mail conference. Also, it should be kept in mind that, although not the
subject of this e-mail conference, the pathway from a research development in
the laboratory to its eventual application in the field (e.g. farmers
cultivating a new genetically improved plant variety or using a new vaccine
against an animal disease) can be long, resource-demanding and unsuccessful,
so many biotechnologies of seemingly high promise at the experimental stage
have had limited applications in developing countries so far.

As many of the biotechnologies described below are related to molecular
biology and genetic material, some basic terminology is introduced here.
Living things are made up of cells that are programmed by genetic material
called DNA. A DNA molecule is made up of a long chain of nitrogen-containing
bases. Only a small fraction of this DNA sequence typically makes up genes
i.e. that code for proteins, which are molecules essential for the
functioning of living cells, made up of chains of amino acids. The remaining
and major share of the DNA represents non-coding sequences whose role is not
yet clearly understood. The genetic material is organized into sets of
chromosomes (e.g. 5 pairs in Arabidopsis thaliana - a model plant species; 30
pairs in cattle), and the entire set is called the genome. In a diploid
individual (i.e. where chromosomes are organized in pairs), there are two
alleles of every gene - one from each parent - transmitted by gametes
(reproductive cells) that are normally haploid (having just one of each of
the pairs of chromosomes). A typical genome contains several thousand genes
e.g. about 30,000 genes in grasses like rice and sorghum (Paterson et al,
2009). Definitions of technical terms used below can be found in the FAO
Biotechnology Glossary (http://www.fao.org/biotech/index_glossary.asp).

2.1 Molecular markers

Molecular markers are identifiable DNA sequences, found at specific locations
of the genome, transmitted by standard Mendelian laws of inheritance from one
generation to the next. They rely on a DNA assay and a range of different
kinds of molecular marker systems exist, such as restriction fragment length
polymorphisms (RFLPs), random amplified polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs), amplified
fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) and microsatellites. The technology has
improved in the past decade and faster, cheaper systems like single
nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are increasingly being used. The different
marker systems may vary in aspects such as their technical requirements, the
amount of time, money and labour needed and the number of genetic markers
that can be detected throughout the genome.

Molecular markers have been used in laboratories since the late 1970s and
they are applied across all the food and agricultural sectors. They are very
versatile and can be used for a variety of purposes. Thus, they are used in
genetic improvement, through so-called marker-assisted selection (MAS), where
markers physically located beside (or, even, within) genes of interest (such
as those affecting yield in maize) are used to select favourable variants of
the genes (FAO, 2007a). MAS is made possible by the development of molecular
marker maps, where many markers of known location are interspersed at
relatively short intervals throughout the genome, and the subsequent testing
for statistical associations between marker variants and the traits of
interest. Marker maps are now available for a wide range of economically
important agricultural species (see e.g. FAO, 2007a for details). Progress in
the field of genomics (the study of an organism's entire genome) has also
provided much useful information for MAS, enabling in some cases markers to
be used that are located within the genes of interest.

Molecular markers are also used to characterize and conserve genetic
resources, where some of the approaches can be applied in each of the crop,
forestry, livestock and fishery sectors (e.g. estimating the genetic
relationships between populations within a species). Other uses again are
more sector-specific, such as their utilization to identify duplicate
accessions in crop genebanks; monitor effective population sizes (Ne) in
capture fish populations or carry out biological studies (e.g. of mating
systems, pollen movement and seed dispersal) in forest tree populations
(Ruane and Sonnino, 2006a). They are also used in disease diagnosis, to
characterize and detect pathogens in livestock, crops, forest trees, fish and
food (see Section 2.4).

Molecular markers have been used in a number of developing countries. In
livestock, for example, they have been used in four African countries for
characterization of genetic resources and in eight Asian countries, where six
used them for genetic distance studies and two for MAS (FAO, 2007b). In Latin
America and the Caribbean, most countries have used molecular techniques,
primarily for characterization purposes, while their use has been limited in
the Near and Middle East (FAO, 2007b). In crops, several examples of new
hybrids and varieties developed through MAS are available, and in progress,
in different crops, such as pearl millet, rice and maize, and in several
developing countries like Bangladesh, India and Thailand (Varshney et al,
2006). Different centres of the Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research (CGIAR) have been working with partners in developing
countries to accelerate plant breeding practices through MAS.

2.2 Genetic modification

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism in which one or more
genes (called transgenes) have been introduced into its genetic material from
another organism. The genes may be from a different kingdom (e.g. a bacterial
gene introduced into plant genetic material), a different species within the
same kingdom or even from the same species. For example, so-called 'Bt crops'
are crops containing genes derived from the soil bacterium Bacillus
thuriengensis coding for proteins that are toxic to insect pests that feed on
the crops. The issue of GMOs has been highly controversial over the past
decade. Many countries have introduced specific frameworks to regulate their
release and commercialization.

GM crops were first grown commercially in the mid 1990s. While the majority
continues to be grown in developed countries, an increasing number of
developing countries are reported to be cultivating them. Recent estimates
(James, 2008) indicate that 10 developing countries planted over 50,000
hectares of GM crops in 2008 i.e. Argentina (21.0 million hectares), Brazil
(15.8), India (7.6), China (3.8), Paraguay (2.7), South Africa (1.8), Uruguay
(0.7), Bolivia (0.6), Philippines (0.4) and Mexico (0.1). For comparison, in
1997 the only developing countries reported were Argentina (1.4 million
hectares), China (1.8) and Mexico (less than 0.1). Almost all GM crops grown
commercially are genetically modified for one or both of two main traits:
herbicide tolerance (63% of GM crops planted in 2008) or insect resistance
(15%), i.e. Bt crops, while 22% have both traits (James, 2008).

Commercial release of GM forest trees has been reported in one country,
China. In 2002, approval was granted for the environmental release of two
kinds of Bt trees, the European black poplar (Populus nigra) and the hybrid
white poplar clone GM 741, together representing about 1.4 million plants on
300-500 hectares (FAO, 2004). Regarding GM livestock or fish, there has been
no commercial release for food and agriculture purposes in any developing or
developed country.

Although documentation is generally quite poor, use of genetically modified
micro-organisms (GMMs) in the agro-industry and animal feed sector is routine
in developed countries and is also a reality in many developing countries. In
the agro-industry sector, use of enzymes, i.e. proteins that catalyse
specific chemical reactions, is important. Many of the enzymes used in the
food industry are commonly produced using GMMs. For example, since the early
1990s, preparations containing chymosin (an enzyme used to curdle milk in the
preliminary steps of cheese manufacture) derived from GM bacteria have been
available commercially (Ruane and Sonnino, 2006b). Similarly, many colours,
vitamins and essential amino acids used in the food industry are also from
GMMs.

In animal nutrition, feed additives such as amino acids and enzymes are
widely used in developing countries. The greatest use is in pig and poultry
production where, over the last decade, intensification has increased,
further accelerating the demand for feed additives. For example, most
grain-based livestock feeds are deficient in essential amino acids such as
lysine, methionine and tryptophan and for high producing monogastric animals
(pigs and poultry) these amino acids are added to diets to increase
productivity. The amino acids in feed, L-lysine, DL-methionine, L-threonine
and L-tryptophan, constitute over half of the total amino acid market. In
India alone, the amino acid market amounts to about 5 million US dollars. The
essential amino acids are produced in some cases by GM strains of Escherichia
coli (FAO, 2009c).

In the dairy industry, recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST), a protein
hormone from an Escherichia coli K-12 bacterium containing the cow
somatotropin gene, has been used to increase milk production in a number of
developing countries. Chauvet and Ochoa (1996) report that rBST was first
used in Mexico in 1990 and has been sold in a number of other developing
countries, including Brazil, Malaysia, South Africa and Zimbabwe.

2.3 Chromosome number manipulation

As mentioned earlier, genetic material is organized into sets of chromosomes
and each plant and animal species has a characteristic number of chromosomes.
Manipulation of whole sets of chromosomes is possible and is used for a range
of different purposes in agriculture. For example, fish and shellfish have
been extensively studied for manipulation of their chromosomes during early
stages of development. Using relatively simple techniques such as cold and
hot shocks it is possible to induce triploidy (i.e. with three sets of
chromosomes), leading to the production of nearly completely sterile
populations. Sterility may be desirable in conservation programs, where it
can prevent introgression of escaped individuals from commercial stocks into
natural populations. It may also be of interest in commercial fish
operations, e.g. when developing hybrid stocks or to prevent the side effects
of sexual maturation on carcass quality (FAO, 2009d). As in fish, induction
of sterility in crops may be desirable in certain breeding programmes, e.g.
to produce seedless fruits, and one of the most rapid and cost-effective
approaches is to create polyploids (i.e. with more than 2 complete sets of
chromosomes), especially triploids. Triploid varieties have been produced in
numerous fruit crops including most of the citrus fruits, acacias and the
kiwifruit (FAO, 2009a).

Another example of chromosomal number modification in fish is the production
of haploid individuals after eggs are fertilized by sperm which do not
contribute genetic material (a process called gynogenesis) or when normal
sperm fertilize eggs whose DNA has been deactivated (a process called
androgenesis). In both cases the haploid chromosomes can then be duplicated
using shocks. The importance of gynogenesis/androgenesis is that it is
possible to develop inbred individuals, which may be useful in fish breeding
experiments aimed at producing clonal lines for detecting genomic regions
affecting quantitative traits (FAO, 2009d).

In crops, chromosome doubling is one of the most important technologies for
the creation of fertile inter-specific hybrids (wide-crosses). Wide crossing
involves hybridizing a crop variety with a distantly related plant from
outside its normal sexually compatible gene pool. Its usual purpose is to
obtain a plant that is virtually identical to the original crop, except for a
few genes contributed by the distant relative. The technique has enabled
breeders to access genetic variation beyond the normal reproductive barriers
of their crops (FAO, 2009a). For example, the New Rice for Africa (NERICA)
hybrids are derived from crossing two species of cultivated rice, the African
rice and the Asian rice, combining the high yields from the Asian rice with
the ability of the African rice to thrive in harsh environments.

Wide-hybrid plants are often sterile so their seed cannot be propagated, due
to differences between the sets of chromosomes inherited from genetically
divergent parental species that prevent stable chromosome pairing during
meiosis. However, if chromosome number is artificially doubled, the hybrid
may be able to produce functional pollen and eggs and be fertile. Colchicine
has been used for chromosome doubling in plants since the 1940s and has been
applied to more than 50 plant species, including most important annual crops.
More recently, several additional chromosome doubling agents, all of which
act as inhibitors of mitotic cell division, have been used in plant breeding
programmes. To date, with the help of chromosome doubling technology,
hundreds of new varieties have been produced worldwide (FAO, 2009a).

In crops and forest trees, chromosome doubling has also been used, as for
fish, to generate 'doubled haploids'. The haploid plants can be produced
using anther culture which involves the in vitro culture of immature anthers
(i.e. the pollen-producing organs of the plant). As the pollen grains are
haploid, the resulting pollen-derived plants are also haploid (Sonnino et al,
2009). Doubled haploid plants were first produced in the 1960s using
colchicine and today, thermal shock or mannitol incubation can be used. They
may also be produced from ovule culture. Breeders value doubled haploid
plants because they are 100% homozygous so any recessive genes are readily
apparent. The time required after a conventional hybridization to select pure
lines carrying the required recombination of characters is thus drastically
reduced. Since the 1970s, doubled haploid methods have been used to create
new varieties of barley, wheat, rice, melon, pepper, tobacco, and several
Brassicas. In the developing world, a major centre of such breeding work is
China, where numerous haploid crops have been released and many more are
being developed. By 2003, China was cultivating over 2 million hectares of
doubled haploid varieties, the most important of which are rice, wheat,
tobacco and peppers (FAO, 2009a).

2.4 Biotechnology-based diagnostics

Applications of biotechnology for diagnostic purposes are important in crops,
forest trees, livestock and fish as well as for food safety purposes. Two
main kinds of methods are used, those based on the enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and those based on the polymerase chain reaction
(PCR).

ELISA systems are antibody-based techniques for the determination of the
presence and quantity of specific molecules in a mixed sample. They are used
in a range of formats, both for the detection of pathogens and for detection
of antibodies produced by the host as a response to the pathogens, and a
range of commercial kits are available, e.g. to detect fish and shrimp
pathogens (Adams and Thompson, 2008). Some of the ELISA-based methods use
monoclonal antibodies, produced by a cell line that is both immortal and able
to produce highly specific antibodies, or polyclonal antibodies, produced by
many cell lines. In livestock, ELISAs form the large majority of prescribed
tests for the OIE notifiable animal diseases, and many diagnostic kits are
available in developing countries (FAO, 2009c).

The PCR-based methods rely on the fact that each species of pathogen carries
a unique DNA or RNA sequence that can be used to identify it. PCR allows
production of a large quantity of a desired DNA from a complex mixture of
heterogeneous sequences. It can amplify a selected region of 50 to several
thousand DNA base pairs into billions of copies. After amplification, the
target DNA can be identified using techniques such as gel electrophoresis or
hybridization with a labeled nucleic acid (a probe). Real time PCR (or
quantitative PCR) enables quantification of DNA or RNA present in a sample.
The genomes of some viruses, such as the influenza A virus, are made of RNA
instead of DNA, and to identify RNA from these viruses a complementary DNA
(cDNA) copy of the RNA is first synthesized using an enzyme called reverse
transcriptase. The cDNA then acts as the template to be amplified by PCR
(FAO, 2009c). This method is called reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR).

PCR-based techniques offer high sensitivity and specificity and diagnostic
kits allow the rapid screening of the virus or bacteria and have a direct use
in situations where individuals show no antibody response after infection.
For example, molluscs do not produce antibodies, and therefore antibody-based
diagnostic tests are limited in their application to pathogen detection in
these species. In fisheries, PCR-related tools are increasingly being used in
developing countries, although they require detailed knowledge of the
genomics of the pathogen itself and extensive validation in practice (FAO,
2009d).

In livestock, public sector production of diagnostic kits for animal diseases
in Asia and Latin America can be found in Brazil, Chile, China, India, Mexico
and Thailand. Research capabilities for development, standardization and
validation of diagnostic methods are also well advanced in these countries.
PCR-based diagnostics are increasingly being employed in developing countries
to back up findings from serological analyses. However, their use is largely
restricted to laboratories of research institutions and universities and to
the central and regional diagnostic laboratories run by governments (FAO,
2009c). In aquaculture, there are some highly integrated companies operating
in developing countries (e.g. in shrimp production) and these companies
commonly use PCR-based diagnostic systems, where the analyses are either
carried out by laboratories of the companies themselves or are outsourced to
specialized private laboratories.

Biotechnology-based diagnostics are also important in food analysis. Many of
the classical food microbiological methods used in the past were
culture-based, with micro-organisms grown on agar plates and detected through
biochemical identification. These methods are often tedious, labour-intensive
and slow. Genetic based diagnostic and identification systems can greatly
enhance the specificity, sensitivity and speed of microbial testing.
Molecular typing methodologies, commonly involving PCR, ribotyping (a method
to determine homologies and differences between bacteria at the
species or subspecies/strain level, using RFLP analysis of ribosomal RNA
genes) and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (a method of separating large DNA
molecules on agarose gels), can be used to characterize and monitor the
presence of spoilage flora (microbes causing food to become unfit for
eating), normal flora and microflora in foods (Ruane and Sonnino, 2006b,
chap. 6.1). RAPD or AFLP molecular marker systems can also be used for the
comparison of genetic differences among species, subspecies and strains,
depending on the reaction conditions used. The use of combinations of these
technologies and other genetic tests allows the characterization and
identification of organisms at the genus, species, subspecies and even strain
levels, thereby making it possible to pinpoint sources of food contamination,
to trace micro-organisms throughout the food chain or to identify the causal
agents of food-borne illnesses (Ruane and Sonnino, 2006b).

2.5 Development of vaccines using biotechnologies

Immunization can be one of the most effective means of preventing and hence
managing animal diseases. In general, vaccines offer considerable benefits
for comparative low cost, a primary consideration for developing countries.
In addition, development of good vaccines for important infectious diseases
can lead to reduced use of antibiotics, which is an important issue in
developing countries (FAO, 2009d).

As described by Kurath (2008), biotechnology has been used extensively in the
development of vaccines for aquaculture, and is applied at each of the three
main stages of vaccine development i.e.
a) identification of potential antigen candidates that might be effective in
vaccines (where an antigen is a molecule, usually a protein foreign to the
fish, which elicits an immune response on first exposure to the immune system
by stimulating the production of antibodies specific to its various antigenic
determinants. During subsequent exposures, the antigen is bound and
inactivated by these antibodies)
b) construction of a new candidate vaccine (where biotechnology tools can be
used to produce different kinds of vaccines such as DNA vaccines, recombinant
vaccines or modified live recombinant viruses. For example, a DNA vaccine is
a circular DNA plasmid containing a gene for a protective antigenic protein
from a pathogen of interest [see Kurath, 2008 for more details]), and
c) assessment of candidate vaccine efficacy, its mode of action and the host
response (where e.g. quantitative RT-PCR [see Section 2.4] can be used to
examine the expression of fish genes related to immune responses).

Of the countries that responded to a recent OIE survey, 4 out of 23 and 7 out
of 14 African and Asian countries respectively indicated that they produce or
use animal vaccines derived from biotechnology, including experimental use as
well as commercial release (MacKenzie, 2005).

2.6 Reproductive biotechnologies

A number of reproductive biotechnologies have been applied in developing
countries to influence the number (and sex) of offspring from given
individuals in fish and livestock populations.

2.6.1 Artificial insemination

In artificial insemination (AI), semen is collected from donor male animals,
diluted in suitable diluents and manually inseminated into the female
reproductive tract during oestrus (heat), to achieve pregnancy. The semen can
be fresh or preserved in liquid nitrogen and then thawed. Efficiency of AI
can be increased by monitoring progesterone levels, e.g. using ELISA, to
identify non-pregnant females, and/or by oestrus synchronization, where
females are treated with hormones to being them into oestrus at a desired
time.

AI is widely used in developing countries (Chupin, 1992; FAO, 2007b). For
example, in India 34 million inseminations were carried out in 2007 while
about 8 million were carried out in Brazil (FAO, 2009c). For Africa, Asia and
Latin America and the Caribbean regions, AI is mostly used for cattle
production (dairy). Other species for which AI is used in all three
continents are sheep, goats, horses and pigs. In addition, in Asia, AI is
used for chickens, camels, buffaloes and ducks, and in Latin America and
Caribbean regions for rabbits, buffaloes, donkeys, alpacas and turkeys. For
the most part, semen from exotic breeds is used in local livestock
populations. To a lesser extent, semen from local breeds is also used for
this purpose. Most of the AI services are provided by the public sector but
the contribution of the private sector, breeding organizations and NGOs is
also substantial. In Africa and Asia, AI use is concentrated in peri-urban
areas (FAO, 2007b; FAO, 2009c). Progesterone monitoring and oestrous
synchronization have been applied in a number of developing countries.
Applications of oestrous synchronization have been limited to some
intensively managed farms where AI is routinely used (FAO, 2009c).

2.6.2 Embryo transfer

Embryo transfer (ET) involves the transfer of an embryo from a superior donor
female to a less valuable female animal. A donor is induced to superovulate
(produce several ova) through hormonal treatment. The ova obtained are then
fertilized within the donor, the embryos develop and are then removed and
implanted in recipient females for the remainder of the gestation period.
Alternatively, the embryos can be frozen for later use.

FAO (2007b) reports that 5, 8 and 12 countries use ET in Africa, Asia and the
Latin America and the Caribbean region respectively. In the latter, ET is
increasingly used by commercial livestock producers and the species involved
are cattle (in all 12 countries) and alpacas, donkeys, goats, horses, llamas
and sheep (in 1 to 3 of these 12 countries). In Brazil and Chile, private
sector organizations are involved in providing the technology.

2.6.3 Hormonal treatment in aquaculture

In the same way as female reproduction in livestock can be controlled by
hormonal treatment, it is also an important tool in aquaculture where it is
applied for 2 main purposes.

The first is to control reproduction of fish and shellfish, primarily to
induce the final phase of ova production in order to synchronize ovulation
and to enable broodstock to produce fish early in the season or when
environmental conditions suppress the spawning timing of females. Implants or
injection of the hormonal compound are used extensively in salmon farming
(FAO, 2009d).  

The second purpose is to develop monosex (single sex) populations, which can
be desirable in many situations. This can be, inter alia, because one sex is
superior in growth or has more desirable meat quality or to prevent
sexual/territorial behaviour. For example, female sturgeon are more valuable
than males because they produce caviar. Female salmon are the more valuable
sex, because sexually precocious males die before they can be harvested and
salmon roe has an economic value. Male tilapia are more desirable than
females because they grow twice as fast. In many fish and shellfish species,
sex is not permanently defined genetically and thus it can be altered in a
number of ways, including treatment with sexual hormones such as testosterone
or estrogen derivatives in early stages of development. To develop all-male
tilapia populations, methyltestosterone can be used while monosex trout can
be produced using androgens (FAO, 2009d). 

2.6.4 Sperm/embryo sexing

In livestock, to get offspring of a desired sex (e.g. females are preferred
for dairy animals, males for beef animals), separation of X and Y sperm (e.g.
based on staining DNA with a fluorescent dye) for AI and sexing of embryos
(e.g. using specific DNA probes) can be used. Although these technologies are
being developed and refined in a number of research institutions, they are
not used at the field level in any of the developing countries, except China
(FAO, 2009c).

2.7 Cryopreservation

Cryopreservation, referring to the preservation of germplasm in a dormant
state by storage at ultra-low temperatures, usually in liquid nitrogen (-196
°C), can be used to preserve biological material (e.g. seeds, sperm, embryos)
of crop, livestock, forest or fish populations for potential use in the
future (Ruane and Sonnino, 2006a). The technology can be used for genetic
improvement purposes and for management of genetic resources. In livestock,
cryopreservation has been used in a number of developing countries for ex
situ conservation of animal genetic resources, including Benin, Brazil,
China, India and Kenya (FAO, 2009c). In fish, cryopreservation of embryos is
not possible but sperm cryopreservation works for many species (Hiemstra et
al, 2006) and has been used in carp, salmon and trout breeding, especially
when the aim is to "refresh" populations that have gone through a bottleneck.

Considering crops and forest trees, about 90% of the 6 million plant
accessions in genebanks, mainly crops, are stored in seed genebanks. However,
storage of seeds is not an option for crops or trees that do not produce
seed, such as banana, or that produce recalcitrant or non-orthodox seed (i.e.
seed that does not survive under cold storage and/or the drying conditions
used in conventional ex situ conservation), such as mango, coffee, oak and
several tropical forest tree species. In these situations, as well as for
long-term storage of seeds from orthodox species, cryopreservation offers an
alternative strategy for ex situ conservation, although its routine use is
still limited. Following plant cell, tissue or organ storage at low
temperatures, plants can be regenerated. For various herbaceous (i.e.
non-woody plants), hardwood (i.e. broadleaf, deciduous trees) and softwood
species (i.e. coniferous trees), cryopreservation of a wide range of tissues
and organs has been achieved. There is large scale application of shoot tip
cryopreservation in fruit crop germplasm collections, such as in plum and
apple. Seeds of most common agricultural and horticultural species can be
cryopreserved (Panis and Lambardi, 2006; Ruane and Sonnino, 2006a).

2.8 Tissue culture-based techniques

Tissue culture refers to the in vitro culture of plant cells, tissues or
organs in a nutrient medium under sterile conditions. It has been widely used
for over 50 years and is now employed to improve many of the most important
developing country crops (FAO, 2009a). There are a number of tissue
culture-based technologies and they can be employed for a range of different
purposes. Some of them, used with chromosome number manipulation, have
already been described in Section 2.3. Others include:

2.8.1 Micropropagation

Micropropagation is the laboratory practice of rapidly multiplying stock
plant material to produce a large number of progeny plants, using plant
tissue culture methods. For instance, shoot tips of banana or potato are
excised from healthy plants and cultivated on gelatinized nutrient media in
sterile conditions (in test tubes, plastic flasks, or baby food jars), so
that contamination with pests and pathogens is avoided. The obtained
plantlets can be multiplied an unlimited number of times, by cutting them in
single-node pieces and cultivating the cuttings in similar aseptic
conditions. Millions of plantlets can be produced this way in a very short
time. The plantlets are then transplanted in the field or nurseries, where
they grow and yield low-cost, disease-free propagation materials, ready to be
distributed to farmers (Sonnino et al, 2009). Even if healthy plants are not
available initially, specific in vitro techniques can also be applied to
produce disease-free propagation material.

Today, micropropagation is widely used in a range of developing country
subsistence crops including banana, cassava, potato and sweetpotato;
commercial plantation crops, such as oil palm, coffee, cocoa, sugarcane and
tea; niche crops such as cardamom and vanilla; and fruit trees such as
almond, citrus, coconut, mango and pineapple. Some of the many countries with
significant crop micropropagation programs include Argentina, Cuba, Gabon,
India, Indonesia, Kenya, Nigeria, Philippines, South Africa, Uganda and
Vietnam (FAO, 2009a).

2.8.2 In vitro slow growth storage

Micropropagation procedures have been developed for over 1,000 plant species,
many of which are today micropropagated commercially. The procedures include
rapid multiplication, involving rapid growth and frequent subculture
(regeneration) which is generally the objective of commercial
micropropagation. Instead, the basis of successful in vitro storage of stock
cultures is to increase the interval between subcultures by retarding the
growth without any deleterious effects on the plants in culture. The strategy
is used to conserve plant genetic resources and in vitro slow growth
procedures can be used so that plant material can be held 1-15 years under
tissue culture conditions with periodic subculturing, depending on the
species. Normally, growth is limited using low temperatures often in
combination with low light intensity or even darkness. Temperatures in the
range of 0-5 °C are employed for cold-tolerant species and 15-20 °C for
tropical species. Growth can also be limited by modifying the culture medium
and reducing oxygen levels available to the cultures (Ruane and Sonnino,
2006a; Rao, 2004).

2.8.3 In vitro embryo rescue

Wide crossing (see Section 2.3) has only become possible by advances in plant
tissue culture. A particular challenge was to overcome the biological
mechanisms that normally prevent inter-specific and inter-genus crosses, as a
high proportion of wide-hybrid seeds either do not develop to maturity or do
not contain a viable embryo. To avoid spontaneous abortion, embryos are
removed from the ovule at the earliest possible stage and placed into culture
in vitro. Mortality rates can be high, but enough embryos normally survive
the rigors of removal, transfer, tissue culture, and regeneration to produce
adult hybrid plants for testing and further crossing (FAO, 2009a).

First-generation, wide-hybrid plants are rarely suitable for cultivation
because they have only received half of their genes from the crop parent.
From the other (non-crop) parent they have received, not only the small
number of desirable genes, but also thousands of undesirable genes that must
be removed by further manipulation. This is achieved by crossing the hybrid
with the original crop plant, plus another round of embryo rescue, to grow up
the new hybrids. This 'backcrossing' process is repeated for about six
generations (sometimes more), until a plant is obtained that is almost
identical to the original crop parent, except that it now contains a small
number of desirable genes from the non-crop parent plant. Wide-crossing
programs can take more than a decade to complete, although MAS and anther
culture can be used to speed up the process (FAO, 2009a).

Embryo rescue has been used occasionally in forest tree species, but its
application is likely to be limited to a small number of hybrids of interest,
which are sufficiently close to produce a normal embryo but where embryo
development in vivo is a limiting factor (FAO, 2009b).

2.9 Mutagenesis

This involves the use of mutagenic agents, such as chemicals or radiation, to
modify DNA and hence create novel phenotypes. Induced mutagenesis has been
used in crop breeding programs in developing countries since the 1930s. It
also includes somaclonal mutagenesis, involving changes in DNA induced during
in vitro culture. Somaclonal variation is normally regarded as an undesirable
by-product of the stresses imposed on a plant by subjecting it to tissue
culture. However, provided they are carefully controlled, somaclonal changes
in cultured plant cells can generate variation useful to crop breeders (FAO,
2009a). In forestry, use of somaclonal variation has been a popular subject
for research, particularly during the 1980s, but the technology is generally
seen to offer little for the genetic improvement of most major industrial
forest tree species (FAO, 2009b).

Almost 3,000 new crop varieties have been developed and released by countries
using mutation-assisted plant breeding strategies and an estimated 100
countries currently use induced mutation technology (FAO/IAEA, 2008; IAEA,
2008). Case studies from Kenya (wheat), Peru (barley), sub-Saharan Africa
(cassava) and Vietnam (rice) are described in IAEA (2008).

In the livestock sector, mutagenesis has also been used in developing
countries. The sterile insect technique (SIT) for control of insects (e.g.
screwworm and tsetse flies) relies on the introduction of sterility in the
females of the wild population. The sterility is produced following the
mating of females with released males carrying, in their sperm, dominant
lethal mutations that have been induced by ionizing radiation. This method is
usually applied as part of an area-wide integrated pest management approach
and has been applied in developing countries in the livestock sector as well
as for the control of crop pests (FAO, 2009c). An estimated 30 countries use
SIT against insect pests, including Chile and Peru (FAO/IAEA, 2008).

Mutagenesis is also extensively used to improve the quality of
micro-organisms and their enzymes or metabolites used in food processing. The
process involves the production of mutants through the exposure of microbial
strains to mutagenic chemicals or ultraviolet rays. Improved strains thus
produced are selected on the basis of specific properties such as improved
flavour-producing ability or resistance to bacterial viruses (FAO, 2009e).

2.10 Fermentation

Fermentation is the process of bioconversion of organic substances by
micro-organisms and/or enzymes of microbial, plant or animal origin. During
fermentation, various biochemical activities take place leading to the break
down of complex substances into simple substances and resulting in the
production of a diversity of metabolites including simpler forms of proteins,
carbohydrates, fats, such as sugars, amino acids, lipids, as well as new
compounds such as antimicrobial compounds (e.g. lysozyme, bactericins);
organic acids (e.g. lactic acid, acetic acid, citric acid); texture-forming
agents (e.g. xanthan gum); and flavours (esters and aldehydes). Apart from
the various new products that are yielded during fermentation, the process is
widely known for its preservative benefits (Ruane and Sonnino, 2006b, chapter
6.1).

The new products that emerge following fermentation have been found to have
potential for longer shelf lives, and they have characteristics quite
different from the original substrates from which they are formed.
Fermentation is globally applied to preserve a wide range of raw agricultural
materials (cereals, roots, tubers, fruit and vegetables, milk, meat and fish,
etc.). Commercially produced fermented foods which are marketed globally
include dairy products (cheese, yogurt, fermented milks), sausages and soy
sauce (Ruane and Sonnino, 2006b). Fermentation of sugars is also central to
production of bioethanol from agricultural feedstocks (FAO, 2008b).

Certain micro-organisms associated with fermented foods, in particular
strains of the Lactobacillus species, are probiotic i.e. used as live
microbial dietary supplements or food ingredients that have a beneficial
effect on the host by influencing the composition and/or metabolic activity
of the flora of the gastrointestinal tract (Ruane and Sonnino, 2006b). They
can also be used as feed additives for monogastric and ruminant animals, and
have been applied for this purpose in China, India and Indonesia (FAO,
2009c).

In developing countries, fermented foods are produced generally at the
household and village level, using traditional processes that are
uncontrolled and dependent on spontaneous 'chance' micro-organisms from the
environment. Modern fermentation processes employ the use of well constructed
vessels (fermenters/bioreactors), with appropriate controlled mechanisms for
temperatures, pH, nutrients levels, oxygen tensions among others and also use
selected micro-organisms and/or enzymes for their operations (FAO, 2009e;
Ruane and Sonnino, 2006b).

2.11 Biofertilisers

Soils are dynamic living systems that contain a variety of micro-organisms
such as bacteria, fungi and algae. Maintaining a favourable population of
useful microflora is important from a fertility standpoint. The most commonly
exploited micro-organisms are those that help in fixing atmospheric nitrogen
for plant uptake or in solubilizing/mobilizing soil nutrients such as
unavailable phosphorus into plant-available forms, in addition to secreting
growth-promoting substances for enhancing crop yield. As a group, such
microbes are called biofertilisers or microbial inoculants. They can be
generally defined as preparations containing live or latent cells of
efficient strains of nitrogen-fixing, phosphate-solubilizing or cellulolytic
micro-organisms used for application to seed or soil with the objective of
increasing the numbers of such micro-organisms and accelerating certain
microbial processes to augment the availability of nutrients in a form that
plants can assimilate readily (Motsara and Roy, 2008). Biofertilisers have
been used in a number of developing countries, such as Kenya and Thailand,
often involving nitrogen-fixing Rhizobia bacteria (Sonnino et al, 2009).

2.12 Biopesticides

Living organisms that are harmful to plants and cause biotic stresses are
collectively called pests, and they cause tremendous economic damage to plant
production worldwide. Biopesticides are mass-produced, biologically based
agents used for the control of plant pests. They can be living organisms,
such as micro-organisms, or naturally occurring substances, such as plant
extracts or insect pheromones. Micro-organisms used as biopesticides include
bacteria, protozoa, fungi and viruses and they are used in a range of
different crops (Chandler et al, 2008).

For example, different biopesticides are available for controlling locusts.
As an illustration, a biopesticide containing spores of the fungus
Metarhizium anisopliae, was used to control a migratory locust infestation in
an FAO project in 2007 in Timor-Leste. Surveys revealed that an area of about
20,000 hectares was infested with gregarious nymphs and that there was a
serious threat to the rice crop. The target area was considered unsuitable
for chemical spraying because of high density human settlement and many water
courses, so the infestation was treated with the biopesticide, targeting
flying swarms using a helicopter, spraying in a time period of over one month
(FAO, 2009f). Note, biopesticides generally have a slow action compared to
conventional chemicals and, for that reason, the latter are preferred if
crops are under immediate threat.

3. Specific Points About This E-mail Conference

The general aim of the e-mail conference is to bring together and discuss
relevant, often previously un-documented, past experiences of applying
biotechnologies at the field level (i.e. used by farmers for commercial
production) in developing countries, ascertain the success or failure (be it
partial or total) of their application, and determine and evaluate the key
factors that were responsible for their success or failure. The conference
does not cover experiences in developed countries.

3.1 Issues to be addressed in the e-mail conference

For any one (or combination) of the biotechnologies described in Section 2,
considering its application at the field level in one of the different food
and agricultural sectors (crops, livestock, forestry, fishery or
agro-industry), in any particular developing country or region, and in any
specific time period over the past 20 years:
- provide an overall assessment of the experience of applying the
biotechnology i.e. was it a success or failure, partial or full (and provide
a justification for this assessment)
- based on this, describe some of the key features that determined its
partial or complete success (or failure)
- if possible, indicate how transferable these results might be to other a)
developing countries/regions b) biotechnologies and c) food and agricultural
sectors
- indicate any lessons that can be drawn from this experience that may be
important for applications of agricultural biotechnology in developing
countries in the future

3.2 Defining success and failure

When considering a certain situation where a biotechnology was implemented in
a specific developing country, sector and time period, and attempting to
assess it as a full or partial success (or failure), a number of different
aspects can be taken into consideration, such as any potential impacts its
application had of a socio-economic, cultural, regulatory, environmental,
agro-ecological, nutritional, health and hygiene, consumer interest and
perceptions, sustainable livelihoods, equity, technology transfer or food
security nature. For example, if we consider the use of a reproductive
technology such as artificial insemination in a certain livestock species
(e.g. dairy cattle) in a given developing country, some of the factors which
might influence whether we would consider it to be a success or failure could
include the impact that applying the biotechnology had on:
- milk production (the trait of main interest)
- other traits, such as cow fertility and health, that can be indirectly
affected (often negatively) by improvements in milk production
- trade (e.g. did use of the biotechnology result in surpluses that led to
creation of new trade opportunities? Alternatively, did its use result in
closure of some existing markets, e.g. due to regulatory issues?).
- economic returns to the farmer, considering the increased financial returns
from increased milk yields as well as any additional costs from using the
biotechnology, such as the cost of inseminating the cow, any additional feed
or veterinary bills, etc.
- food security (e.g. was more milk produced, leading to greater food
security?)
- equity (e.g. was use of the biotechnology restricted to already-rich
farmers or did its use also extend to the more food-insecure smallholders;
also who gained from sale of the biotechnology itself ? [e.g. were the AI
services provided by a foreign multinational company or by a local farmers
co-operative])
- consumer interests (did use of the biotechnology produce a negative
consumer reaction, resulting in reduced milk consumption?)
- genetic resources (e.g. if AI was used to cross local females with semen
from bulls of developed countries, did it result in erosion of valuable
genetic resources in developing countries)
- technical aspects related to applying the biotechnology (e.g. did it work
properly, was much training/equipment needed for people to use it?)
- any unexpected impacts of using the biotechnology.

The number of potential factors that could influence the overall assessment
of the biotechnology as a success or failure (partial or complete) is
therefore quite large and, for a given case, some of the factors might be
negative and others positive. Thus, the fact that a certain biotechnology has
been used (and maybe continues to be used) does not mean per se that it has
been a success, although in certain cases, it may be considered as an
indicator of success.

A major hurdle to determining fully whether specific applications of
biotechnology have been a success or failure is that there is normally a lack
of solid, scientifically sound data and documentation about the impacts of
their application on people's livelihoods and their socio-economic conditions
etc. (Sonnino et al, 2009). Indeed, one of the aims of this e-mail conference
is to try and get a better insight and more information on such areas.

3.3 Covering GM versus non-GM biotechnologies

The conference will be moderated and one of the Moderator's main tasks is to
ensure that all of the biotechnologies as well as all of the food and
agricultural sectors are adequately covered in the conference. As anyone
following this area knows, the topic of genetic modification, and GMOs, is
one of major interest and has been the object of a highly polarized debate,
particularly concerning GM crops. One of the consequences of this is that the
actual impacts and the potential benefits of the many non-GM biotechnologies
have tended to be neglected. However, to learn from the past regarding
applications of agricultural biotechnologies in developing countries, the
entire range of biotechnologies should be considered as there may be many
specificities related to any particular biotechnology tool, regarding aspects
such as its financial, technical and human capacity requirements, its purpose
(e.g. genetic improvement, genetic resources management or disease
diagnosis), its potential impacts etc. For this reason, we ask participants
to ensure that all the biotechnologies and all the food and agricultural
sectors are covered adequately. In addition, regarding GMOs, discussion in
the conference should not consider the issues of whether GMOs should or
should not be used per se or the attributes, positive or negative, of GMOs
themselves. Instead, the goal is to bring together and discuss specific
experiences of applying biotechnologies (including genetic modification) in
the past in developing countries.

3.4 Submitting a message

Before submitting a message, participants are requested to:
a) ensure that it considers the issues mentioned above in Section 3 and the
biotechnologies mentioned in Section 2
b) limit its length to 600 words
c) read the Rules of the Forum and the Guidelines for Participation in the
E-mail Conferences. These were provided by e-mail when joining the Forum, and
they can also be found at http://www.fao.org/biotech/forum.asp. One important
rule is that participants are assumed to be speaking in their personal
capacity, unless they explicitly state that their contribution represents the
views of their organization.

When submitting their first message, participants should introduce themselves
briefly, providing also their full address at the end of the message.

4. References, Abbreviations and Acknowledgements

Adams, A. and K.D. Thompson. 2008. Recent applications of biotechnology to
novel diagnostics for aquatic animals. OIE Scientific and Technical Review
27: 197-209. http://www.oie.int/boutique/extrait/16adams197210.pdf

Chandler, D., Davidson, G., Grant, W.P., Greaves, J. and G.M. Satchel. 2008.
Microbial biopesticides for integrated crop management: an assessment of
environmental and regulatory sustainability. Trends in Food Science and
Technology 19: 275-283.    

Chauvet, M. and M.R. Ochoa. 1996. An appraisal of the use of rBST in Mexico.
Biotechnology and Development Monitor 27: 6-7.
http://www.biotech-monitor.nl/2703.htm

Chupin, D. 1992. Résultats d'une enquête sur l'état de l'insémination
artificielle dans les pays en développement. Elevage et Insémination, 252:
1-26.

FAO, 2004. Preliminary review of biotechnology in forestry, including genetic
modification. Forest Genetic Resources Working Paper FGR/59E.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ae574e/ae574e00.htm

FAO, 2007a. Marker-assisted selection: Current status and future perspectives
in crops, livestock, forestry and fish. By E. Guimarães, J. Ruane, B. Scherf,
A. Sonnino and J. Dargie (eds.). FAO.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a1120e/a1120e00.htm

FAO, 2007b. The state of capacities in animal genetic resources management:
Reproductive and molecular biotechnology. Chapter 3.D in 'The state of the
world's animal genetic resources for food and agriculture'. By B. Rischkowsky
& D. Pilling (eds.). http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a1250e/a1250e00.htm

FAO, 2008a. The state of food insecurity in the world: High food prices and
food security - threats and opportunities. http://www.fao.org/SOF/sofi/

FAO, 2008b. The role of agricultural biotechnologies for production of
bioenergy in developing countries. Background Document to Conference 15 of
the FAO Biotechnology Forum (10 November to 7 December 2008).
http://www.fao.org/biotech/C15doc.htm

FAO, 2009a. Background document to ABDC-09. Biotechnology applications in
crops in developing countries. When finalized, available at
http://www.fao.org/biotech/abdc/backdocs/en/ 

FAO, 2009b. Background document to ABDC-09. Biotechnology applications in
forestry in developing countries. When finalized, available at
http://www.fao.org/biotech/abdc/backdocs/en/ 

FAO, 2009c. Background document to ABDC-09. Biotechnology applications in
livestock in developing countries. When finalized, available at
http://www.fao.org/biotech/abdc/backdocs/en/ 

FAO, 2009d. Background document to ABDC-09. Biotechnology applications in
fisheries and aquaculture in developing countries. When finalized, available
at http://www.fao.org/biotech/abdc/backdocs/en/ 

FAO, 2009e. Background document to ABDC-09. Biotechnology applications in
food processing and food safety in developing countries. When finalized,
available at http://www.fao.org/biotech/abdc/backdocs/en/ 

FAO, 2009f. Report of the 39th session of the FAO Desert Locust Control
Committee, Rome, Italy, 10-13 March 2009.
http://www.fao.org/ag/locusts/common/ecg/1665/en/DLCC39e.pdf

FAO/IAEA, 2008. Atoms for food: A global partnership.
http://www.iaea.or.at/Publications/Booklets/Fao/fao1008.pdf

Hiemstra, S.T. van der Lende, T. and H. Woelders. 2006. Potential of
cryopreservation and reproductive technologies for animal genetic resources
conservation strategies. In 'The role of biotechnology in exploring and
protecting agricultural genetic resources'. By J. Ruane and A. Sonnino
(eds.). FAO. http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0399e/A0399E06.htm#ch2.1

IAEA, 2008. Nuclear science for food security. IAEA press release.
http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/PressReleases/2008/prn200820.html

James, C. 2008. Global status of commercialized biotech/GM crops: 2008.
http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/39/default.html

Kurath, G. 2008. Biotechnology and DNA vaccines for aquatic animals. OIE
Scientific and Technical Review 27: 175-196.
http://www.oie.int/boutique/extrait/15kurath175196.pdf

MacKenzie, A.M. 2005. Application of genetic engineering for livestock and
biotechnology products. 73rd OIE General Session.
ftp://ftp.fao.org/codex/ccfbt5/bt0503ae.pdf

Motsara, M.R. and R.N. Roy. 2008. Guide to laboratory establishment for plant
nutrient analysis. FAO Fertilizer and Plant Nutrition Bulletin 19.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/011/i0131e/i0131e00.htm

Panis, B. and Lambardi, M. 2006. Status of cryopreservation technologies in
plants (crops and forest trees). In 'The role of biotechnology in exploring
and protecting agricultural genetic resources'. By J. Ruane and A. Sonnino
(eds.), pp. 61-78. FAO.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0399e/A0399E06.htm#ch2.2

Paterson, A.H. et al. 2009. The Sorghum bicolor genome and the
diversification of grasses. Nature 457: 551-556.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v457/n7229/full/nature07723.html

Rao, N.K. 2004. Plant genetic resources: Advancing conservation and use
through biotechnology. African Journal of Biotechnology 3: 136-145.
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB/PDF/Pdf2004/Feb/Rao.pdf

Ruane, J. and A. Sonnino, 2006a. Background document to the e-mail conference
on the role of biotechnology for the characterization and conservation of
crop, forest, animal and fishery genetic resources in developing countries.
In 'The role of biotechnology in exploring and protecting agricultural
genetic resources'. By J. Ruane and A. Sonnino (eds.), pp. 151-172. FAO.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0399e/A0399E09.htm#ch4.1 

Ruane, J. and A. Sonnino. 2006b. Results from the FAO Biotechnology Forum:
Background and dialogue on selected issues. FAO Research and Technology Paper
11. http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0744e/a0744e00.htm 

Sonnino, A., Dhlamini, Z., Mayer-Tasch, L. and F.M. Santucci. 2009. Assessing
the socio-economic impacts of non-transgenic biotechnologies in developing
countries. In 'Socio-economic impacts of non-transgenic biotechnologies in
developing countries: The case of plant micropropagation in Africa'. By A.
Sonnino, Z. Dhlamini, F.M. Santucci and P. Warren (eds.). FAO.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/011/i0340e/i0340e00.htm

Varshney, R.K., Hoisington, D.A. and A.K. Tyagi, 2006. Advances in cereal
genomics and applications in crop breeding. Trends in Biotechnology 24:
490-499.

ABBREVIATIONS: AFLP = Amplified fragment length polymorphism; AI = Artificial insemination; Bt = Bacillus thuringiensis; ELISA = Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; ET = Embryo transfer; FAO = Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations; GMM = Genetically modified micro-organism; GMO = Genetically modified organism; IAEA = International Atomic Energy Agency; MAS = Marker-assisted selection; OIE = World Organisation for Animal Health; PCR = Polymerase chain reaction; RAPD = Random amplified polymorphic DNA;  rBST = recombinant bovine somatotropin; RFLP = Restriction fragment length polymorphism; RT-PCR = reverse
transcriptase PCR; SIT = Sterile insect technique.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: This document was prepared by John Ruane and Andrea Sonnino, from the FAO Working Group on Biotechnology. Grateful appreciation is expressed to the following people for their comments on the document: To the external referees: Harinder P.S. Makkar (University of Hohenheim, Germany,
https://www.uni-hohenheim.de/1597.html?typo3state=persons&lsfid=3199); Victor Martinez (Universidad de Chile, Chile, http://www.genetica-animal.uchile.cl), Denis J. Murphy (University of Glamorgan, United Kingdom,
http://people.glam.ac.uk/view/184) and Rajeev Varshney (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, India, http://www.icrisat.org/CEG/index.htm, and Generation Challenge Programme, Mexico, http://www.generationcp.org/subprogramme2.php) as well as to FAO colleagues: Nuria Alba, Zohra Bennadji and Preetmoninder Lidder.

FAO, 4 June 2009.

Recommended reference for this publication:
FAO, 2009
Learning from the past: Successes and failures with agricultural biotechnologies in developing countries over the last 20 years.
Background Document to Conference 16 of the FAO Biotechnology Forum (8 June to 5 July 2009): http://www.fao.org/biotech/C16doc.htm

Copyright FAO 2009

The news item on this page is copyright by the organization where it originated - Fair use notice

Other news from this source